Browsing by Author "Block Novelo, David Alejandro"
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Item Open Access Aero engine compressor cooling by water injection - Part 1: Evaporative compressor model(Elsevier, 2018-06-10) Block Novelo, David Alejandro; Igie, UyioghosaThe need for more fuel-efficient jet engines has led to a rise in compressor pressure ratio and turbine inlet temperature respectively. The latter has been possible with advancements in turbine blade technology. Nevertheless, this higher temperature during combustion increases the production of thermal Nitrogen Oxides. Contrary to this high-pressure, high-temperature aero-engine design trend, regulations are pushing towards capping or reducing emissions. Injecting atomised water into a jet engine is an alternative to mitigate Nitrogen Oxides that is applied extensively to stationary gas turbines. The application for jet engines is very limited and dates back to the early Boeing 707 and 747 for thrust augmentation. The focus of this study is to investigate the performance benefits of water injection when applied to 2 and 3-spool compressors, under a wide range of different environmental conditions, and for different injection properties. In this first paper, a thermo-analytical compressor model with water droplet investigations in the Lagrangian frame of reference is explored. The methodology is applied to two different engine architectures, representative of modern turbofan engines. This injection study focuses on cooling the core and shows that the percent reduction in compressor discharge temperature is promising over a wider range of ambient conditions than expected. The effect of droplet sizes or quantity utilised were seen to be more influential. The 3-spool compressor also appears to benefit more from water injection in this investigation, mainly due to the higher operating pressures and temperatures found on the Intermediate Pressure Compressor which enables more efficient evaporation, as compared to a booster compressor. Given the design of this compressor, two locations of injections were considered. Reductions in Compressor Discharge Temperature of 60 and 80K were seen for the 2 and 3-spool engines, for a 2% injection ratio, accompanied by reductions in specific compressor work of 16 and 17%. Part 2 of this study has considered boundary conditions obtained here, to investigate the performance and emissions of complete jet engines.Item Open Access Aero engine compressor cooling by water injection - Part 2: Performance and emission reductions(Elsevier, 2018-05-28) Block Novelo, David Alejandro; Igie, UyioghosaTake-off and climb up to 3000 ft are the flight segments in which the aero-engine experiences the highest operating temperatures, which are known to be accompanied by a high production rate of Nitrogen Oxides (NOx). This contaminant has negative health implications on the human population, vegetation and wildlife that is in frequent proximity or exposure. Water injection into the compressor offers the possibility of reducing NOx. Nevertheless, limited studies have focused on the emissions reduction potentials and the wider questions of the influence of engine type and of wide-ranging ambient conditions. This study continues from Part 1 and explores the implications of the studied ambient conditions on the overall respective engine systems and their consequent emission reduction. An in-house gas turbine performance simulation software has been implemented to model and simulate the engine performance. For the emissions estimation, correlations were made from the information provided by the Engine Emissions Data Bank to quantify the reductions in Nitrogen Oxides. The 2 and 3-spool engine models investigated demonstrated significant reductions in compressor discharge and turbine inlet temperatures due to water injection. In this condition, the rotational speeds of the compressors are seen to be reduced to counter the mass flow augmenting effect of water injection and to satisfy the fixed thrust constraint. This along with lower compressor specific work brings about an improvement in the specific fuel consumption (5.3% and 7.8%, respectively) and general performance at low and high ambient temperatures. A higher advantage was seen for the 3-spool engine over the 2-spool as shown. Significant reductions in Nitrogen Oxide emissions of over to 50% are also demonstrated.Item Open Access Application of compressor water injection for the reduction of civil aircraft NOᵪ emissions.(2018-12) Block Novelo, David Alejandro; Igie, Uyioghosa; Nalianda, DevaiahGas turbine Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) emissions are directly proportional to combustion temperature. These contaminants are associated with respiratory diseases and damage to the local water quality and wildlife. Higher demand on civil aviation, coupled to high-pressure ratio (and thus, temperature-ratio) engines, have caused aviation-borne NOᵪ Gas turbine Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) emissions are directly proportional to combustion temperature. These contaminants are associated with respiratory diseases and damage to the local water quality and wildlife. Higher demand on civil aviation, coupled to high-pressure ratio (and thus, temperature-ratio) engines, have caused aviation-borne NOᵪ emissions to double since 1990. This is of concern around airports, at operations below 3,000 ft. where the concentration of air traffic is high and the population faces direct exposure to engine contaminants. This thesis explores the use of atomized water droplets into an engine compressor as a way of intercooling the cycle and in doing so reducing NOᵪ emissions. The use of water injection is proposed to be applied only during take-off and climb up to 3,000 ft. The analysis of water injection is firstly applied to common turbofan architectures (2 and 3-spool), under varied ambient conditions. The gas turbines are simulated by means of an in-house performance simulating tool, Turbomatch. The changes in cycle temperature when water injection is applied, are accounted for by means of a stand-alone analytical compressor model. The platform calculates the thermodynamic exchange between the gas path of the engine and the water droplets in the Lagrangian frame of reference. The engine models are then integrated into an in-house aircraft performance simulating tool, Hermes. Two types of aircraft, narrow and wide-body, are considered for operations with the water injection system. The performance benefits noted in the stand-alone engine section, are evaluated considering the extra system weight for different missions ranging from 500 to 11,000 km. The observed theoretical trends are then confirmed by means of an experiment performed on a stationary gas turbine. The test includes performance monitoring (pressures, temperatures, mass flows), water droplet measurements, and exhaust emissions analysis. The most optimistic case of water injection shows a reduction of NOx emissions greater than 50%, for the period when water is used. This technology, when applied after the fan compressor, is effective at ambient temperatures as low as 5°C and is more promising in 3-spool engines. For the shortest mission considered, equivalent to a journey from London to Paris, the aircraft benefits from a small fuel saving, despite of the extra weight. For longer missions, there is a negligible fuel penalty (0.05%) derived from the extra payload. In all the cases Landing and Take-Off (LTO) emissions are estimated to be reduced by 42-43%. A reduction of NOx emissions of 25% is achieved experimentally when injecting 2% water-to-air ratio. The study concludes that compressor water injection is a feasible solution that can significantly reduce the environmental footprint of aviation emissions to double since 1990. This is of concern around airports, at operations below 3,000 ft. where the concentration of air traffic is high and the population faces direct exposure to engine contaminants. This thesis explores the use of atomized water droplets into an engine compressor as a way of intercooling the cycle and in doing so reducing NOᵪ emissions. The use of water injection is proposed to be applied only during take-off and climb up to 3,000 ft. The analysis of water injection is firstly applied to common turbofan architectures (2 and 3-spool), under varied ambient conditions. The gas turbines are simulated by means of an in-house performance simulating tool, Turbomatch. The changes in cycle temperature when water injection is applied, are accounted for by means of a stand-alone analytical compressor model. The platform calculates the thermodynamic exchange between the gas path of the engine and the water droplets in the Lagrangian frame of reference. The engine models are then integrated into an in-house aircraft performance simulating tool, Hermes. Two types of aircraft, narrow and wide-body, are considered for operations with the water injection system. The performance benefits noted in the stand-alone engine section, are evaluated considering the extra system weight for different missions ranging from 500 to 11,000 km. The observed theoretical trends are then confirmed by means of an experiment performed on a stationary gas turbine. The test includes performance monitoring (pressures, temperatures, mass flows), water droplet measurements, and exhaust emissions analysis. The most optimistic case of water injection shows a reduction of NOᵪ emissions greater than 50%, for the period when water is used. This technology, when applied after the fan compressor, is effective at ambient temperatures as low as 5°C and is more promising in 3-spool engines. For the shortest mission considered, equivalent to a journey from London to Paris, the aircraft benefits from a small fuel saving, despite of the extra weight. For longer missions, there is a negligible fuel penalty (0.05%) derived from the extra payload. In all the cases Landing and Take-Off (LTO) emissions are estimated to be reduced by 42-43%. A reduction of NOx emissions of 25% is achieved experimentally when injecting 2% water-to-air ratio. The study concludes that compressor water injection is a feasible solution that can significantly reduce the environmental footprint of aviation.Item Open Access Case for exploring compressor water injection for airport emission reduction(ASME, 2017-06-30) Block Novelo, David Alejandro; Igie, UyioghosaThe increasing world population, higher accessibility to air transportation, coupled with new low-cost airline models has resulted in an unprecedented increase in demand for civil aviation. The industry is currently experiencing a global increase of operational civil aircraft at a rate of 5–6% annually. This growth suggests a vibrant future for the industry, however, the environmental implications and the footprint is worth considerable attention given the expected scale of growth in the industry and the possible side effects to human health. The stakeholders involved, some of which include: airports and airline operators, jet engine and airframe manufacturers and various government bodies, are introducing measures in order to mitigate the increase in certain emissions and hence their impact. This study focuses on one of the many existing approaches targeting the reduction in gaseous emissions, predominantly nitrogen oxides (NOx). This is through compressor water injection that is estimated to reduce NOx emissions by almost half under certain ambient conditions and water-to-air ratio. Apart from reviewing this technology, the study, more importantly, presents the ideas in relation to other major existing approaches/concepts. It would be observed that compressor water injection can be more readily applied to the existing infrastructure when compared to other approaches. This technique is one of the most promising methods for reducing NOx emissions, an area of particular importance given that modern engines, though more thermally efficient, operate at higher pressure ratios and flame temperature, both of which enhance nitrogen oxides formation. One of the main contributions of this paper is the categorisation of existing approaches focused on reducing aircraft-borne airport emissions. Different technologies and operational changes are classified according to the key pollutants that they target with respect to the landing and takeoff cycle based on 11 different engine types. These gaseous-emissions mitigating approaches are analyzed based on their individual merits, limitations and feasibilities. Compressor water injection is re-introduced here as a more readily applicable solution despite its technological challenges, many of which can be better resolved with today’s knowledgeItem Open Access Entropy generation and efficiency of a transonic rotor with water injection - a numerical study(American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2021-01-11) Zawadzki, Natan; Szymanski, Artur; Block Novelo, David Alejandro; Igie, UyioghosaThe application of compressor water injection in aeroengines is of renewed interest in the civil aviation industry. Water due to its unprecedented heat capacity has the potential to cool the engine air through evaporation and thus reduce the NOx emissions formed in a combustion process. It is well known that the evaporative cooling increases thermodynamic cycle efficiency and thus improves the fuel economy. A relatively unexplored area, however, is the entropy generation due to water phase change as well as the balance between the corresponding entropy yield and the savings from the cooling of the core compressor flow. Hence, little consensus in the literature exists on the ultimate effect of water injection on compressor efficiency. In this study, a numerical analysis of water injection on an axial transonic rotor was carried out. The compressor model was tested at near-peak efficiency conditions with and without water injection. The flow was analysed using the Eulerian-Lagrangian approach with two-way coupling and the k-ω Shear Stress Transport turbulence model with Reattachment Modification. A universal, second thermodynamic law approach to quantify the entropy generation is proposed and used to evaluate the compressor flow. Results show that evaporation can facilitate the compression process and does not impair the compressor efficiency if applied at favourable conditions. The entropy generation in droplet-laden flow scales according to the gains from cooling effect and losses due to the evaporation and increased friction in the fluid. Some of the discrepancies in the public domain could be addressed, showing that the observed improvement in compressor efficiency is highly sensitive to the entropy flux measurement location. Most benefits from water injection were observed at the rotor tip proving the case for part-span injection from an entropy balance perspective.Item Open Access On-board compressor water injection for civil aircraft emission reductions: range performance with fuel burn analysis(Elsevier, 2019-01-03) Block Novelo, David Alejandro; Igie, Uyioghosa; Nalianda, DevaiahThe performance benefit of compressor water injection for a stand-alone jet engine has been investigated in previous work conducted by the authors, as well as other studies. For the same required thrust, the benefits include reduced specific fuel consumption, turbine inlet temperature and NOx emissions. The additional weight implication for aircraft (narrow and wide-body type) with their typical engine type (two and three-spool) for the varied range is investigated here. The emphasis of this study is to establish whether the performance benefit restricted to take-off and parts of the climb, offsets the additional weight penalty of the water injection system, onboard the aircraft. An in-house aircraft performance tool has been used and the changes in performance due to water injection are determined by an evaporation model previously developed. This study shows that the shortest range of 4 missions offers small overall fuel savings of 0.42% per flight cycle. The longest mission, in which the injection equipment is carried for longer (though mostly empty water tank), brings about an overall increase in fuel consumed, by about 0.05%. For the same range, the aircraft powered by a three-spool engine shows better performance. However, both aircraft equally benefit from landing and take-off NOx emission reductions of around 43%. Water Injection is shown to result in similar performance benefits as 25% take-off derate but without the penalties in fuel burn or increased take-off and climb times. Reductions in turbine inlet temperature obtained are worth considerable attention as a means of decreasing the direct operating costs of an airline.Item Open Access Reducing airport emissions through aircraft gas turbine water injection at take-off(2018-10-31) Block Novelo, David Alejandro; Igie, UyioghosaAirport-related air pollution has become a global concern. Around Mexico City’s Benito Juarez International Airport, the Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) levels double the concentration suggested by international authorities. At Heathrow Airport in London, airliners are charged more than £15.00 per kilogram of NOx emitted every time one of their aircraft takes-off. This contaminant is associated with respiratory diseases, and it has been recognized to damage the local vegetation and wildlife. Cooling the aircraft’s engine by compressor water injection is a way to reduce this pollutant by almost 50%. This study explains by means of an analytical method applied to the compressor, the physical mechanism behind the cooling of the thermodynamic cycle. The method is validated against other publications and used to evaluate the potential NOx decrease on a common aircraft’s power plant. It is shown how a 2-spool engine can benefit from a decrease in operating temperature in the order of 10%, which can lead to a NOx reduction of 45%. For an Airport like Heathrow, this can represent a reduction in total NOx emissions of 12%. The effects that water injection has on a gas turbine in terms of reduced temperature and increased ambient air humidity are isolated and quantified.