Browsing by Author "Mallory, Adrian"

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    Agent-based modelling for simulation-based design of sustainable faecal sludge management systems
    (MDPI, 2019-03-28) Mallory, Adrian; Crapper, Martin; Holm, Rochelle H.
    Re-using faecal sludge (FS) to generate value has the potential to contribute towards solving the issue of long term sanitation solutions in growing urban areas across sub-Saharan Africa; however, hitherto, no design tools have been available that are capable of simulating a system involving economic factors, complex social issues and environmental circumstances. We hypothesized that Agent-Based Modelling (ABM), when deployed with appropriate rigour, can provide such a tool. Extensive field work was carried out in a Malawian city, investigating the adoption of Skyloo above-ground composting toilets by households, and the operation of the municipal FS site. 65 semi-structured interviews and 148 household interviews, together with observations, were carried out to characterize these processes, with the data acquired being used to construct two separate ABMs. The Skyloo ABM was run for various scenarios of start-up capital for business and payback of loans against the toilet cost to households. The municipal FS Site ABM was run for different patterns of dumping fee and enforcement structure. The field work demonstrated that there is potential for further expansion of FS reuse, with a market for agricultural application. The Skyloo ABM identified the significance of start-up capital for a business installing the toilet technology; the municipal FS Site ABM showed that existing fees, fines and regulatory structure were insufficient to reduce illegal dumping of FS to any useful degree, but that a monthly permit system would provide enhanced revenue to the city council compared with per-visit charging of disposal companies at the municipal FS site. Whilst each ABM ideally requires some additional data before full application, we have, for the first time, shown that ABM provides a basis for the simulation-based design of FS management systems, including complex social, economic and environmental factors.
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    An analysis of in‐field soil testing and mapping for improving fertiliser decision‐making in vegetable production in Kenya and Ghana
    (Wiley, 2020-12-01) Mallory, Adrian; Golicz, Karolina; Sakrabani, Ruben
    In‐field soil testing and soil mapping can contribute to addressing the challenge of poor soil fertility and limited fertilizer application across sub‐Saharan Africa. Semi‐quantitative colorimetric methods, such as paper test strips, are frequently employed in soil nutrient assessment across developing countries, especially in South‐East Asia. This research investigated the accuracy of nutrient‐sensitive paper strips and smartphone, which was re‐purposed to act as a reflectometer, to assess soil nitrate‐N, and different methods for mapping soil fertility to identify areas of land that are suitable for human waste‐derived fertilizers (HWDF) application. The study entailed testing soil samples across 42 different farms in Kenya and Ghana and compared it to laboratory results in‐country. It was found that paper strips were capable of assessing available nitrate‐N concentration present in the soil within ±20 kg ha−1 of the standard method for 86% of the farms. Paper strips were less effective in Ghana as they had been calibrated for a method that was not used by local laboratories. Paper strips were not effective for HWDF samples, where chemical interferences and concentration of different forms of nitrates were too high, resulting in overestimation of readings and thus negatively affecting any associated nutrient management advice. Soil mapping has the potential to use open‐source data to inform farmers through mobile technology. For soil mapping two methods were deployed which includes targeting organic matter deficient areas and stakeholder led mapping, with the latter shown to be more effective in identifying areas for HWDF application.
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    Evaluating the circular economy for sanitation: findings from a multi-case approach
    (Elsevier, 2020-07-15) Mallory, Adrian; Akrofi, Daniel; Dizon, Jenica; Mohanty, Sourav; Parker, Alison; Rey Vicario, Dolores; Prasad, Sharada S.; Welvita, Indunee; Brewer, Timothy R.; Mekala, Sneha; Bundhoo, Dilshaad; Lynch, Kenny; Mishra, Prajna; Willcock, Simon; Hutchings, Paul
    Addressing the lack of sanitation globally is a major global challenge with 700 million people still practicing open defecation. Circular Economy (CE) in the context of sanitation focuses on the whole sanitation chain which includes the provision of toilets, the collection of waste, treatment and transformation into sanitation-derived products including fertiliser, fuel and clean water. After a qualitative study from five case studies across India, covering different treatment technologies, waste-derived products, markets and contexts; this research identifies the main barriers and enablers for circular sanitation business models to succeed. A framework assessing the technical and social system changes required to enable circular sanitation models was derived from the case studies. Some of these changes can be achieved with increased enforcement, policies and subsidies for fertilisers, and integration of sanitation with other waste streams to increase its viability. Major changes such as the cultural norms around re-use, demographic shifts and soil depletion would be outside the scope of a single project, policy or planning initiative. The move to CE sanitation may still be desirable from a policy perspective but we argue that shifting to CE models should not be seen as a panacea that can solve the global sanitation crisis. Delivering the public good of safe sanitation services for all, whether circular or not, will continue to be a difficult task
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    An evaluation of different provision strategies for scaled-up container-based sanitation
    (IWA Publishing, 2021-09-17) Ferguson, Charlie; Mallory, Adrian; Hutchings, Paul; Remington, Claire; Lloyd, Erica; Kiogora, Domenic; Anciano, Fiona; Parker, Alison
    Container-based sanitation (CBS) is increasingly used to provide safely managed sanitation in low-income urban settlements. However, questions remain around the viability of scaling up the technology, partly because it relies on regular emptying and servicing of containers by a CBS provider. This paper investigates mechanisms by which this process can be achieved efficiently. Three separate collection strategies are evaluated for their routing efficiencies as CBS goes to scale. An open-source route optimisation solver determines the constituent driving and walking distances necessary for each strategy and has been applied in areas of Cape Town, Cap-Haïtien, Lima and Nairobi. The results indicate that with fewer users (e.g. 50) transfer station models offer the shortest driving routes. However, these do require users to carry their containers (e.g. up to 170 m when stations are 100 m apart). As the number of users increases (e.g. to 5,000), visiting individual houses from a neighbourhood depot offers increasingly efficient driving distances. Overall, however, the results suggest that economies in collection distances for scaled CBS will be largely conditional on greater vehicle capacity (rather than any particular provision strategy). This highlights the importance of road access throughout low-income urban settlements in providing a viable CBS service at scale.
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    Literature Review of Value of Faecal Sludge
    (Cranfield University, 2020-10-09 15:20) Mallory, Adrian
    This spreadsheet presents data from a literature review of sanitation in Africa and Asia to assess the value of resource recovery from faecal sludge management. It presents the reference, location, theory score, value of product converted to dollars using Market Exchange and Parity Purchasing Parity rates.
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    The potential for scaling up container-based sanitation in informal settlements in Kenya
    (Wiley, 2022-02-21) Mallory, Adrian; Mdee, Anna; Agol, Dorice; Hyde-Smith, Leonie; Kiogora, Domenic; Riungu, Joy; Parker, Alison
    Kenya has enshrined the right to sanitation in the 2010 constitution. Achieving this requires scaling up infrastructure and models of delivery beyond sewer networks that have previously been the focus. In Kenya, two enterprises, Sanergy and Sanivation, have been providing new forms of off-grid services with container-based sanitation (CBS). This paper uses a political economy analysis to understand the incentives, institutions and power dynamics that are enabling or constraining the potential for such off-grid sanitation models. The paper outlines six core problems to be addressed in the pursuit of scaling up: fragmented governance; sustainability of CBS enterprise models; service delivery planning in informal settlements; personal power rather than institutions in decision-making; vested local interests; and land tenure and political connection. It discusses how stakeholders might work collaboratively to progressively address or recognise these issues.
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    A qualitative study of NIMBYism for waste in smaller urban areas of a low-income country, Mzuzu, Malawi
    (Sage, 2021-01-11) Holm, Rochelle H.; Chunga, Brighton A.; Mallory, Adrian; Hutchings, Paul
    When waste management infrastructure is built, there can be resistance from the local affected populations, often termed the Not in My Backyard (NIMBY) phenomenon. This study aims to understand the forms of resistance that may develop in such contexts, focusing on 2 solid waste and 1 liquid waste management site within Mzuzu City, Malawi. At the newest solid waste site, community resistance had grown to the extent that the site was reportedly destroyed by the local community. Interviews and observations of the sites are complemented by examining historic and recent satellite images. It was found that, at the new solid waste site, community engagement had not been conducted effectively prior to construction and as part of ongoing site operations. This was compounded by poor site management and the non-delivery of the promised benefits to the community. In contrast, at the liquid waste site, the community could access untreated sludge for use as fertilizer and were happier to live within its vicinity. While NIMBYism is a frustrating phenomenon for city planners, it is understandable that communities want to protect their health and well-being when there is a history of mismanagement of waste sites which is sadly common in low-income settings. It is difficult for government agencies to deliver these services and broader waste management. In this study, an unsuccessful attempt to do something better with a legitimate goal is not necessarily a failure, but part of a natural learning process for getting things right
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    A qualitative study on resource barriers facing scaled container-based sanitation service chains
    (IWA Publishing, 2022-02-22) Ferguson, Charlie; Mallory, Adrian; Anciano, Fiona; Russell, Kory; del Rocio Lopez Valladares, Hellen; Riungu, Joy; Parker, Alison
    Container-based sanitation (CBS) is an increasingly recognised form of off-grid sanitation provision appropriate for impoverished urban environments. To ensure a safely managed and sustainable service, a managing organisation must implement a service chain that performs robustly and cost-effectively, even with an expanding customer base. These ‘CBS operators’ adopt varying approaches to achieve this objective. Following research including interviews with representatives from six current CBS operators, this paper presents a generalised diagrammatic model of a CBS service chain and discusses the three broad thematic challenges currently faced by these organisations. Supplying cover material is a universal problem with hidden challenges when taking advantage of freely available resources. There is no universally applicable approach for the efficient collection of faecal waste despite the high labour costs of waste collection. The best strategy depends on the CBS operator's overall expansion strategy and the location of fixed features within the served community. Although CBS is technically well-suited to being turned into new products within the circular economy, in practice, this requires a diverse range of skills from CBS operators and is hampered by slow growth in other organic waste recovery services and unhelpful regulation.
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    A review of the financial value of faecal sludge reuse in low-income countries
    (MDPI, 2020-10-10) Mallory, Adrian; Holm, Rochelle; Parker, Alison
    Faecal sludge reuse could promote responsible waste management and alleviate resource shortages. However, for this reuse to be carried out at scale, it needs to be financially viable. This paper reviews the financial values of resource recovery from 112 data points from 43 publications from academic and grey literature. The results found 65% of the existing literature is projected rather than being based on observed data from products in practice, with limited studies providing actual experiences of revenue in practice. Some of the estimates of the potential value were ten times those observed in data from operating businesses. Reasons for this include pricing of products against unrealistic competitors, for example, pricing briquettes against diesel fuel, or difficulties in marketing or regulation of products in practice. The most common form of reuse in practice is agricultural composting, which is also the lowest value product. Few cases were able to achieve more than $5/person/year from sludge reuse, therefore other drivers are needed to promote proper human waste disposal, including the health and dignity of citizens, but which are not easily monetised. Certification and recognition of product safety can improve the perception of value and products. Resource recovery has a limited role in the financial viability of providing Circular Economy sanitation in low-income countries. Instead, there is a need to focus on supportive policies and subsidies enabling the transition towards a Circular Economy supporting environmental quality, ecological health and human health
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    Soil Testing Data and ArcGIS files for "An analysis of in-field soil testing and mapping for improving fertiliser decision-making in vegetable production in Kenya and Ghana"
    (Cranfield University, 2022-02-17 08:46) Mallory, Adrian; Golicz, Karolina; Sakrabani, Ruben
    In-field soil testing and soil mapping can contribute to addressing the challenge of poor soil fertility and limited fertilizer application across sub-Saharan Africa. Semi-quantitative colorimetric methods, such as paper test strips, are frequently employed in soil nutrient assessment across developing countries, especially in South-East Asia. This research investigated the accuracy of nutrient-sensitive paper strips and smartphone, which was re-purposed to act as a reflectometer, to assess soil nitrate-N, and different methods for mapping soil fertility to identify areas of land that are suitable for human waste-derived fertilizers (HWDF) application. The study entailed testing soil samples across 42 different farms in Kenya and Ghana and compared it to laboratory results in-country. It was found that paper strips were capable of assessing available nitrate-N concentration present in the soil within ±20 kg ha−1 of the stand-ard method for 86% of the farms. Paper strips were less effective in Ghana as they had been calibrated for a method that was not used by local laboratories. Paper strips were not effective for HWDF samples, where chemical interferences and concentra-tion of different forms of nitrates were too high, resulting in overestimation of read-ings and thus negatively affecting any associated nutrient management advice. Soil mapping has the potential to use open-source data to inform farmers through mobile technology. For soil mapping two methods were deployed which includes targeting organic matter deficient areas and stakeholder led mapping, with the latter shown to be more effective in identifying areas for HWDF application.
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    Understanding the role of informal pit emptiers in sanitation in Nairobi through case studies in Mukuru and Kibera settlements
    (IWA Publishing, 2020-12-09) Mallory, Adrian; Omoga, Lilian; Kiogora, Domenic; Riungu, Joy; Kagendi, Dorothy; Parker, Alison
    Achieving universal sanitation in informal settlements will depend on improved onsite sanitation, as sewer systems are unlikely to be viable solutions due to technical and political constraints. In Nairobi, Kenya, 60% of the population live among its 150 informal settlements, occupying only 5% of its total residential land. This research assessed the role of informal pit emptiers in providing sanitation in Mukuru and Kibera, two of the largest informal settlements in Nairobi, and the barriers to achieving improved services. Through qualitative data collection, the research found that pit emptiers are institutionally and physically outside of the current paradigm of sanitation service delivery. There is no infrastructure available to remove waste from informal settlements, except for a transfer station that is being piloted by Sanergy, and instead waste ends up disposed in the community. The pit emptiers also face violence and intimidation from competitors or locals claiming ownership of territory. Providing improved sanitation in such areas will depend on the provision of new infrastructure, but this can only succeed with a detailed understanding of the competing and vested interests that can enable or undermine a project.
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    Why agricultural tools work in theory but aren’t adopted in practice: a grounded theory approach to ICT in Ghana and Kenya
    (SAGE, 2022-04-14) Mallory, Adrian; Parker, Alison; Hutchings, Paul
    Organic fertilisers could contribute to addressing the issues of declining soil fertility, food security and waste management by recycling human waste for use in sub-Saharan Africa. The variable nutrient content of such products can make targetted application more difficult than in chemical fertilisers. One solution to this could be the use of in-field soil testing and information, particularly with the expansion of mobile technology. This research investigated the role of information and soil testing in 43 farmers using human waste derived fertilisers in Kenya and Ghana. Interviews were conducted to understand the use and sources of information in farming and the perception of soil testing technologies. It was found that mobile based testing was unlikely to be adopted for reasons of low priority, the type of knowledge being shared and trust after failures of different projects. Farmers did not see soil testing as the major issue that they needed to solve. Mobile technology was mostly used for visual and oral communication whereas soil testing often provided information in an unsuitable way. Farmers also had limited trust in new projects as they had previously had project failures that did not help them. In order to achieve sustainable adoption of technology there needs to be improved methods of disseminating and learning from project failures to prevent repeated attempts at inappropriate technology in the future.