Exploring low-cost fused-deposition-printed PZT/polymer smart mats for footstep energy harvesting in Masjid Al-Haram

Abstract

Masjid Al-Haram experiences some of the densest pedestrian flows globally, with foot traffic exceeding 278,000 individuals per hour during peak rituals. This presents a unique opportunity to convert human kinetic energy into usable electricity via piezoelectric floor systems. This paper investigates whether low-cost, fused-deposition-based (FDB) 3D printing methods can fabricate PZT/polymer smart mats that are both mechanically robust and electrically responsive. Two strategies are compared: (i) a modular approach, where discrete PZT tiles are embedded in a compliant TPU lattice, and (ii) a mixed-blend approach, where PZT-filled and insulating filaments are co-extruded into a monolithic structure. Simulations are used to assess each design’s print fidelity, interfacial adhesion, electrical output under 750 N footstep loading, fatigue life across 10⁶ cycles, and foldability for roll-out deployment. Results indicate that while the mixed-blend design offers superior fabrication speed, the modular structure yields more stable electrical performance. This study provides a simulation-backed design framework for scalable, energy-harvesting mats tailored for high-traffic religious spaces, setting the stage for future prototyping and deployment.